Beam weapons

Phasers
Phasers are the quintessential Star Trek beam weapon, first seen in the original series. The term is commonly held to be derived from PHASed Energy Rectification, but this is most likely a acronym.

Starship phasers
The ship-board phaser is known to have existed at least ten years before the time of the original series. The original variety of ship-mounted phaser was known as the phaser bank, which fired from a single point on a ship's exterior and required a short period to recharge between discharges. This was eventually replaced in the 24th century with the phaser array or strip, a long, shallow device imbedded within a ship's hull. This was composed of short sections, each of which contained facilities for receiving, adding to, passing on, and firing a phaser charge. The phaser strip functioned by having its two end segments each create a phaser charge; these were passed along the sections, each adding to one of the charges, until they met at the centre segment, which aimed and fired the combined charge. The firing segment could be changed by instructing the sections receiving one of the charges to operate more slowly than the others. A third, less common variety, seen on such ships as the type-one Miranda class and the Defiant class, is the pulse phaser cannon. This device is a phaser bank which features a length of focusing coils, which slow the front of a beam and form the charge into a layered sphere before it leaves the cannon.
Large phasers are categorized by wattage into numbered varieties, with higher numbers using greater power. The most common varieties of ship-mounted phaser in Starfleet in the 2360s and '70s era were type-nines and type-tens.

Ship-board phasers have been seen set to stun, just like their handheld cousins.

Phaser sidearms
Hand phasers were first seen in the episode "Where No Man Has Gone Before", from the original series. They have a variety of numbered settings, from one, a beam designed to temporarily impair humanoid central nervous systems with a slight temperature increase, to five, which causes third-degree burns in most humanoids, to six through ten, which vaporize matter, to eleven and higher, which have explosive effects. Phasers can also be configured for various intensities, controlling the angle of the beam's expansion.
In the original series, the basic hand phaser (Type I) was a small rectangular box that fits into the palm of the hand. These can be clipped into a pistol-like unit (the Type II) for increased power and battery life. In the mid-24th century, the Type I became an ergonomically designed ellipse cupped in the hand. The 2360s Type II was a longer weapon that featured a handle at a straight angle with the axis of the beam. A 2370s update had a handle at an acute angle with the axis, more pistol-like in appearance. The 24th century Types I and II could not be combined. The Type III designation is and has been used for larger phaser rifles that do not apparently share any components with the Type I or Type II.

From "The Wink of an Eye" we know that phaser beams do not go at the speed of light, but significantly slower.

Phase weapons
Phase weapons were first introduced in Enterprise. They come in two varieties, starship-based cannon and small pistol-like sidearms. They are most likely some sort of electric charge weapon.

Disruptors
Disruptors are employed by the Cardassian Empire, Romulan Star Empire, Klingon Empire, Borg, Breen and Orions in their hand armaments and military armaments as well as being mounted as cannon, arrays, emitters, turrets, and banks.
One type of disruptor, the Varon-T Disruptor, is outlawed in the Federation because it causes a painful, lingering death; Commander Data was threatened with this in the episode where he was captured by a collector, Kivas Fajo, in the third season Next Generation episode, "The Most Toys". Only a few were made, and those were presumably destroyed after Fajo's arrest.


Plasma beam cannon
These are usually mounted only on vessels and use similar technology to a transporter's annular confinement beam to contain a beam of highly concentrated, high-powered, and mildly unstable energetic plasma. This weapon was developed by the Romulans and was highly effective against Federation shields. The Romulans ceased use of the weapon due to its instability.
Few other races but the Ferengi, who still employ it on their Marauders, use this weapon.


Phased polaron cannon
These are weapons that were first encountered when contact with the Dominion was made. The cannon emit a particle beam of polarons, the antimatter counterpart of the muon. The beam is extremely powerful and has an immensely devastating effect against Federation shielding. Star ships require immensely compressed shields to prevent these high-speed sub-atomic particles from slipping through the shielding.

Lasers
Lasers were seen used as hand weapons in "The Cage", the first pilot episode of the original series, almost universally accepted now as non-canon. Since then we have not seen them in use by any culture of any great technological development. In Next Generation episodes, when the USS Enterprise was confronted by enemies using them as shipboard weapons, they remarked that it would not harm them even with the deflector shields off. A squadron of automated drones equipped with lasers was once obliterated in seconds by the Enterprise-D in "Conundrum".

Ballistic weaponry
Fusion missiles
These, also known as spatial torpedoes, are the original weapons carried by the first Starfleet vessels. They involve the primitive use of heavy hydrogen and a high-speed particle accelerator. The heavy hydrogen is accelerated and fired into a store liquid supply of heavy hydrogen by the particle accelerator. The heavy hydrogen atoms collide at high speed, releasing energy and converting themselves into helium. This weapon became obsolete when shield technology had advanced to the point where it could repel most forms of EM radiation.

Photonic torpedoes
These missiles were the precursor to the photon torpedo. Photonic warheads most likely used a matter/antimatter detonation to induce nuclear fusion. They were variable yield devices, controllable by the amount of matter and antimatter placed in the warhead.

Photon torpedoes
Photon torpedoes are a missile weapon commonly seen on Starfleet vessels and also used by many races. They were first seen in the original series, and have not yet been introduced into Enterprise. They employ deuterium and antideuterium as their explosive agents. They are variable yield, adjusted by changing the amount of antimatter loaded before launch. They have navigation and both sub light and warp propulsion abilities of their own, and can thus track an enemy ship. Torpedoes can also be left at or sent to a location and placed on a proximity setting.
Empty photon torpedo cases have been for such varying purposes as burials at space, travel (as a diplomat used one in "The Emissary" (TNG) for warp-speed transportation, though it was a tight fit), and as cases for probes.

Over the years, we've seen torpedoes with many different 'MARK's written on the side, suggesting this technology has undergone continual improvement. However, Starfleet believes that the weapon's payload has reached a theoretical maximum at 18.5 isotons.


Quantum torpedoes
Quantum torpedoes were first seen in the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode, "The Search", fitted to the USS Defiant. They pack a considerably harder punch than photon torpedoes. Their high payload of 21.8 isotons is produced by harnessing zero-point energy (a real life concept).

Tri-cobalt-strotium torpedoes
These, also known as tricobalt devices, were first seen in the pilot for Voyager, "The Caretaker", were they were used to demolish the Caretaker's array. Little is known about them. Some fans have suggested that they are extremely advanced and classified munitions; another theory is that they are for demolition and would not be used in combat.

Chronoton torpedoes
These are temporally phased torpedoes which shuffle backward and forward in time or even shift right outside the experienced space time continuum. This allows them to slip straight through unmodified shielding no matter how powerful. These torpedoes are highly specific in temporal variation as not to be lost or erased from space and time. To counteract temporal weaponry you require temporal shielding where the shield projection matrices are flooded a chronoton variance flow. This blocks against temporal incursion and thus can prevent chronoton torpedoes from skipping through the shields. The only problem with that is with the temporal factor removed from the equation it leaves a fight between superior shields and heavy weapons fire. One very valuable factor of the temporal shield is that a starship or a starbase can be temporally shielded and thus unsusceptible to timeline alterations. If, for instance, the asteroid that wiped out the dinosaurs was deflected or destroyed and dinosaurs continued to live, all of the timeline after that point would be erased and the only thing left of the previous timeline would be that of the temporal shielded facilities and vessels.

Microtorpedoes
These are 13.3 cm long missiles carried by Danube class runabouts. They are self-propelled by a small fusion reactor and can be loaded with a variety of chemical explosives or biological agents.